Nikon DSLR History

Introduction

This is an historical summary and commentary of Nikon DSLRs. Click the links to individual reviews for details and comparisons.

A year in digital cameras is equal to 25 regular years. A camera introduced 2-1/2 years ago may as well be 62 years old. It's completely obsolete. A new D5100 for $675 has far better image quality than the old Nikon D2Xs which sold for $5,000 a few years before.

Contrast this to film cameras where my 4x5" Linhof Technika and150mm lens are over 50 years old, and still in the prime of their useful life.

This article reads backwards. The newest is on top.

Generations

There are vast differences in real image quality between Nikon's two generations of digital cameras.

Like most marketing organizations and repressive governments, camera makers keep most people in the dark by keeping them worrying about easy-to-understand things which make no difference, like pixels and ISOs which are easy to describe with just one number, instead of trying to teach people what really matters, which are the subtleties of how a picture actually looks.

Because camera makers have the masses worrying about pixels and bit depths, when Nikon makes significant advances, they're usually not obvious behind all the fluff.

The difference between generations is so significant that the best Gen 1 camera, the D2Xs, can't make pictures as good as the cheapest Gen 2 camera, the D90, in most real picture-taking situations.

First Generation

Nikon's first generation of digital SLRs started with the D1 of 1999 and continues in 2008 with the D40.

The first generation has only primitive picture and white balance adjustments.

Gen 1 cameras have an Optimize Image menu with crude controls allowing only two rudimentary options of "Enhance (+)" or "Moderate (-)" for saturation, and WB trims that extend only to ±3. There is no green/magenta adjustment for WB.

There were meaningless mentions of undefined modes I, II and III in the Optimize Image menu, but no clever dynamic range management as Gen 2 adds.

Gen 1 cameras are the D1 and D2 series, D40, D40x, D50, D70, D70s, D80, D100 and D200.

Second Generation

Nikon's second generation DSLRs started coming out in 2007 with the D3 and D300.

Second generation cameras offer the potential of significantly better real image quality because Gen 2 cameras add Nikon's Adaptive Dynamic Range (ADR).

Presuming its turned on, ADR allows Gen 2 cameras to render most real scenes much closer to the way our eyes see them, without all added contrast, blown highlights and blocked shadows common on film and Gen 1 cameras for most people.

If you're a pro who knows how, and actually controls his lighting perfectly, then you can get great results on Gen 1 cameras, but for most people who don't, Gen 2 cameras will give significantly better pictures.

The D90 has ADR on by default, and the D3, D700 and D300 need it turned on in the menus. I always shoot my cameras with ADR in NORMAL (or AUTO if available) for every shot.

Gen 2 cameras also are Nikon's first cameras to allow a full range of saturation and other image adjustments. Saturation and other values are set in direct units of up to ±3. These are set in the Picture Controls menus.

Gen 2 cameras have WB trims which extend 6 units in each direction, marked in blue and amber (not + and -) and allow green/magenta adjustment.

Gen 2 cameras offer five manual preset (gray card) WB storage settings, complete with icons and notes.

Gen 2 cameras magically and automatically correct color fringes caused by most lenses. If you're a tweaker, this alone significantly improves corner sharpness.

	The Gen 2 D90 is far, far better than the Gen 1 D200. I didn't have a D2Xs for comparison, but it would be the same as the D200. These shots are crops from the corner with the 18-200mm VR at 18mm. The D90 is as sharp as the D300. The D90 was focused elsewhere in this example.

Gen 2 cameras are using the increased in-camera processing horsepower to do all these tricks. If you're wasting your time shooting raw, you will have to hope that whatever software you're using to open raw files is as smart as what Nikon is building into these cameras for free. Many off-brands of software can't do any of this.

There was never much reason for raw, and in Gen 2, even less. It's quite likely that using raw with a Gen 2 camera and most, if not all, software, will throw you back into Gen 1 quality. It's not 2006 anymore. Most raw software does not do any of the clever things, like ADR, expanded color controls or totally automatic lens corrections, that are done in-camera.

Gen 2 cameras also have a super-sharp new 3" LCD screen.

Gen 2 cameras are the D3, D700, D300 and D90.

The D60 has ADR, but its stuck with the old Optimize Image menu and none of the other Gen 2 additions, so call it Gen 1.1 if you insist. I'm calling it Gen 1.

The D3000 has ADR and Gen II Picture Controls, but it has a crummier 3" LCD screen and does not correct lateral color fringes, so I'll call it Gen 1.5.

2014

Nikon D4S and 58mm f/1.4 G.

25 February 2014: 16 MP FX, 11 FPS, 47.3 oz./1,337g, $6,500.

The D4s is a D4 with a faster computer to allow more noise reduction to give a foolish ISO 409,600 setting, 11 frames per second up from 10, and a bunch of other small features changes. The D4S development was announced 07 January 2014 at CES 2014.

Nikon D3300 and 18-55mm VR II.

07 January 2014: 24MP DX, 16.2 oz./460g with battery and SD card, ISO 100 - 12,800 (25,600), 11-point AF, 3" LCD, 5 FPS, 1080p video, mono mic. $650 with lens; also comes in gray and comes in red for the same price.

A minor revision to the D3200 of 2012; adds a gray color version and 45g lighter; same AF and resolution as D3200.

2013

Nikon Df and 50mm f/1.8 Special Edition.

05 November 2013: 16 MP FX, ISO 50 ~ 204,800, 5.5 FPS, 3.2" 921k dot LCD, no video or mic, 27.0 oz./765 g with battery and card. $2,749, or $3,000 with lens. Also comes in black.

Unlike every other Nikon DSLR ever, the Nikon Df is a completely new camera, taking the ergonomic brilliance of the Nikon FE and stuffing the digital guts of a D4 into it. The Df is an all-metal piece of excellence with real knobs and buttons, not the push-multifunction-button-and-spin-dial cost-cutting baloney of Nikon's SLRs since the 1990s.

Nikon D5300 and 18-140mm.

17 October 2013: 24 MP DX, 5 FPS, 3" flip LCD, 1080p video, mono mic, 30.0 oz./850 g with battery and card. $799, or $1,400 with lens.

The D5300 is the same as last year's D5200, adding built-in Wi-Fi and GPS.

Nikon D610 and 24-85mm VR.

08 October 2013: 24 MP FX, 6 FPS, 3.2" LCD, 1080p video, mono mic, 30.0 oz./850 g with battery and card, $1,999.

The D610 is the same as the D600, supposedly with a "new shutter" that begets 6 FPS and a 3 FPS "quiet" mode.

Nikon D7100 and 18-105mm VR DX.

21 February 2013: 24 MP DX, 6 FPS, 3.2" LCD, 1080p video, stereo mic, 26.8 oz. (759g) with battery, strap rings and card.

New in the D7100 were OLEDs for finder data display, a weird 1.3x crop mode inside the 1.5x DX frame, the first "i" button for controlling recent settings.

2012

Nikon D5200 and 18-55mm VR.

06 November 2012: 24 MP DX, 5 FPS, 3" flippy LCD, 1080p video, 19.6 oz. (555 g) with battery and SD card. (USA release was delayed until 08 January 2013.)

Nikon D600 and 24-85mm VR.

13 September 2012: 24 MP FX, $2,099, 5.5 FPS, 3.2" LCD, 1080p video, 30.0 oz. (850g) with battery and SD card.

Nikon D3200.

19 April 2012: 24 MP DX, $700 with 18-55mm VR, 4 FPS, 3" LCD, 1080p video, 26.9 oz. (498g) with battery and SD card.

Nikon D800 and D800E.

07 February 2012: 36MP FX, $3,000 and $3,300, 4 FPS, 3.2" LCD, 1080p video, 35.1 oz. (994g) with battery and SD card.

The D800 completely rewrites the book, and obsoletes most of Nikon's DSLR line. Yipee!

Nikon D4.

06 January 2012: 16MP FX, 10 FPS, 47.3 oz./1,337g, $6,000. Pretty much only a D3¼ with less weight, more FPS, no big deal. What can be a big deal is the removal of the rear AF-area mode switch, replacing it with a button and dials instead.

2011

Nikon D5100.

05 April 2011: Nikon D5100. 16MP DX, 4 FPS, 3" flippy LCD, 1080p movies. $799.95, available May 2011.

An updated D5000.

2010

Nikon D7000.

15 September 2010: Nikon D7000. 16MP DX, 6 FPS, 3" LCD, movies. $1,199.95, available mid-October 2010.

New in the D7000 is two SD card slots, Nikon's first 2,016-segment RGB meter, two new programmable mode-dial positions, U1 and U2 (as copied from Canon's C1 and C2 instant-recall settings), a 39-point AF system, and two types of Auto White Balance.

Nikon D3100.

19 August 2010: Nikon D3100. 14MP DX, 3 FPS, 3" LCD, movies. $699.95 with 18-55mm VR, available mid-September 2010.

2009

Nikon D3s.

14 October 2009: The Nikon D3s is just a mid-product-cycle freshening of the D3. Both are FX 12MP 9FPS cameras. Price is $5,200.

THe D3s adds video, a sensor cleaner, an additional 1.2x 8MP crop mode, dedicated INFO and Live View buttons, Quiet Mode, stupid-high ISOs to ISO 102,000, and $300 to the price of the D3.

Nikon D300s.

30 July 2009: The Nikon D300s adds movies, a dedicated INFO button and the QUIET mode to the D300.

Nikon D3000.

30 July 2009: The Nikon D3000 has a low-resolution 3" LCD and 10MP for $599, including an excellent 18-55mm VR lens. It's the worst Nikon DSLR ever made because it has very slow operation in most use, and has poor performance at high ISOs. TheD40 of 2006 is superior and costs less.

Nikon D5000.

14 April 2009: The Nikon D5000 adds a flippy LCD screen, movies and 12MP DX for $730. It's slotted below the D90 but above the D40 from 2006.

2008

Nikon D3X.

01 December 2008: The D3X is announced. It's identical to the original D3, except with 24.4MP and only 5FPS and lower ISOs.

Nikon D90.

27 August 2008: The D90, a 12MP DX mid-line DSLR for $999. Replaces D80, and is a huge improvement over the D80 because it jumps to Gen 2.

Nikon D700.

01 July 2008: The D700, a 12MP FX DSLR for $2,999.95. It's Nikon's top amateur camera.

Nikon D60

January 28, 2008: Nikon D60 announced. Replaces D40x.

2007

Nikon D3

23 August 2007: The D300 and D3 are announced for November sale. Both have new 3" LCDs with live viewing.

The D3 is another milestone with Nikon's first 24x36mm sensor, dubbed FX. It runs 9FPS for $5,000. The D3 replaces the D2Xs. Nikon's press release on the D3.

Nikon D300

The D300 is an evolution of the D200, now with a 12MP DX sensor and 6-8 FPS for $1,800. $1,800 oddly is a price increase $300 over the D200. The D300 replaces the D200. Nikon's press release on the D300.

Nikon D40x

05 March 2007: The D40x is announced to fill a vacant price point in Nikon's line. It is the same as the excellent D40, but with 10MP instead of 6MP, but a slower sync speed of 1/200 vs. 1/500, a slower default ISO of 100 vs. 200, and a $200 higher price than the D40. The D40x was introduced to let Nikon fill in a price point in its camera line for competitive purposes. Personally I prefer the less expensive D40. See also theMegapixel Myth.

2006

Nikon D40

16 November 2006: The D40 is announced for Christmas at $599 with included excellent 18-55mm II lens. It is the smallest, lightest and least expensive Nikon DSLR ever. It started shipping on November 30th, 2006.

Nikon D80

09 August, 2006: The D80 is announced. 10 MP, 3 FPS for $999. The D80 is a D70 body and mechanics with the sensor and LCD of the D200.

Nikon D2Xs

June 2006: The D2Xs is announced, a slight improvement to the D2X. Same 12 MP and 5FPS and weird crop mode. $4,700.

2005

Nikon D200

01 November 2005: the D200 is announced. It's a groundbreaker at 10MP and 5 FPS at $1,699. It shipped in December 2005 as promised. It was on backorder until about October 2006. The D200 starts a new level in the Nikon line between the plastic D70 and the pro D2X.

Nikon D70s

Nikon D50

22 April 2005: The D70s and D50 are introduced. The D70s is a D70 with slightly larger screen. The D50 is a D70 with a couple of features removed. The D50 is still 6MP but only 2.5 FPS.

The D70, D70s and D50 are great cameras new or used, but replaced by the two-year-newer D80 of late 2006.

Nikon D2Hs

16 February, 2005: The D2Hs is announced. It's a minor revision of the D2H at a bargain price of $3,500. This makes a used D2H or new D2HS a great buy for sports. They are the same as the more expensive D2Xs, just faster with a few less pixels.

2004

Nikon D2X

16 September, 2004: the D2X is announced. 12MP, 5 FPS, $5,000. The D2X also has a bizarre cropped 7 MP, 8 FPS mode. Most of what the D2X does is replaced by the D200 in 2005. I'd get a used D2X if the price was right. It's Nikon's top of the line. I prefer the D200 for smaller size and a couple of more features.

Nikon D70

February 2004: Nikon shows the D70 at PMA. It's lightweight, 6MP, 3 FPS and a groundbreaker at $999. The D70 is a huge improvement over the D100 in almost every way except having no accessory vertical grip. All this, and it's priced less, too! The D70 fixes the dust problem by moving the CCD filter further away from the CCD. This throws dust out of focus and makes it much less of an annoyance than on the D1 series cameras.

The D70 replaced the D100.

Nikon was going to discontinue the D100, but instead decided to keep making the D100 because they discovered they could get a higher price than the D70 just because of the model number. People who equated price with quality kept buying D100s because they cost more.

2003

December, 2003: Nikon announced the development of the D70. Nikon had little to say other than the D70 would be cheap. Nikon was still inventing the D70 and had none to sell. Nikon made the announcement to get people to wait instead of fleeing from Nikon to Canon's inexpensive Digital Rebel.

Nikon D2H

22 July, 2003: The D2H is announced. 4.1 MP, 8 FPS, $5,000. The D2H was a new design with a much improved Li-Ion battery and a new flash exposure system. The D2H is a bargain used and a fantastic camera for sports.

2002

Nikon D100

21 February, 2002: The D100 is announced. It's 6 MP and 3 FPS for $1,999. This is Nikon's first lightweight amateur DSLR camera. It was an N80 with digital guts. It wasn't available for sale until June, 2002. It was a sellout with long waiting lists for a year after its introduction.

In May 2003 the D100 dropped to $1,699. In December 2003 it dropped to $1,499 where it stayed for a year or two. In May 2005 it dropped to $999.

Forget the D100, but snap one up if you can get a screaming deal.. The newer D70 and D50 work better. The D100 required messing with a wheel and knob to make critical adjustments. The newer cameras have direct entry buttons. The newer cameras have two years of extra wisdom in their firmware and just do everything better. Flash exposure isn't very good on the D100. See a comparison here. The D100 used the same EN-EL3 Li-Ion battery of the D50 and D70.

2001

Nikon D1H. Nikon D1X looks the same except for model number.

05 February 2001: Nikon announces the D1X and D1H, improvements to the D1. Performance was honed, a few features were added and price remained at $5,000.

They both replaced the numerical menu system with easy to understand menus in English.

The D1H kept the 2.7 MP sensor and increased speed to 5 FPS.

The D1X slowed to 3 FPS, but increased resolution to 5.3 MP. The resolution of the D1X is still decent in 2006. It used a bizarre CCD with twice the horizontal pixel density of the D1. Image quality was, and still is, extremely good because it had 4,024 horizontal pixels on the CCD. It had to do less Bayer interpolation and thus has much better image quality than one would expect in its 3,008 x 2,000 pixel images.

Don't buy either of these today regardless of price. They had awful battery systems. I had a D1H. They only run for about 250 shots on a charge. The batteries are huge, heavy Ni-MH packs which require constant babying in charging. The packs have protuberances which make them painful to carry in a pocket. They lose charge if left unused. Even a freshly charged battery would indicate almost dead after a few shots. Most D1, D1H and D1X users including myself lived with the viewfinder indications turning off, indicating almost dead battery, after just a few shots. They also had awful flash exposure. Many photographers had to revert to non-TTL exposure modes because the TTL mode was so flaky. Dust was a horrible problem because the CCD cover filter was too close to the CCD. At almost any aperture you'd see dust clearly on the image. They were state of the art in their era (2001 - 2003), but that era is long gone.

1999:World's First Practical DSLR

Nikon D1.

15 February 1999: Nikon announced it was working on "a new professional class, high-quality digital Single Lens Reflex Camera."

15 June, 1999: Nikon announces the D1, the world's first practical DSLR. It is the first practical DSLR because it's the first DSLR with good enough image quality for print (2.7 MP), fast enough (4.5 FPS) and priced low enough ($5,000) and functional enough to be sensible to use daily as a primary camera. It's also the first DSLR made with Nikon electronics in a Nikon body, by Nikon.

It replaced film at forward-looking newspapers.

Forget about it today, regardless of price. For the same price you can get the greatly improved D1H or D1X, neither of which are worthwhile today either. The D1 is confined to the dumpster of history (and collectors) because its battery system is a pain, and its menu structure requires interpreting numerical custom functions. It requires a cheat sheet to decipher. Flash exposure performance is awful. Get one only as a landmark camera to collect. The D1 is the landmark. The D1 is the camera that replaced film at newspapers.

The D1 is unique in having a 1/16,000 top shutter speed, since its shutter is also electronic. That's how it gets a 1/500 sync speed. If you use the PC sync terminal or a non-dedicated flash so the D1 doesn't know you've got a flash attached; sync goes all the way to 1/16,000!

Nikon announced no new DSLRs for a couple of years.

1998

The similar E3 and E3S came out, still based on a big klunky Fuji body. They were still only 1.3 MP (1,280 x 1,000 pixels). SCSI interface. Still about $20,000.

These relics are worth about $300 in 2006. Don't bother using them for serious photography.

1996

A minor upgrade, the E2N and E2NS came out and was still about $20,000.

These relics are worth about $300 in 2006. Don't bother using them for serious photography.

1995

Digital SLRs are still science experiments, but in series production for special events. Nikon finally makes its first commercialized DSLR, over twenty years after America invented digital cameras.

It was called the Nikon E2 and E2S. They weren't Nikon bodies at all. They were hacked out of Fuji bodies with Nikon electronics! Bizarre internal reduction optics helped restore the field of view, with weird effective apertures. PCMCIA card memory. About $20,000 and only 1.3 megapixels, which is why they don't count as practical cameras.

These relics are worth about $300 in 2006. Don't bother using them for serious photography.

1991

Digital SLRs are still custom built laboratory experiments. NASA had some Texans hack an F4 to fly on the STS-48 shuttle mission. It had a 1MP black-and-white sensor and recorded to a Texas-sized hard drive hacked to the bottom of the F4. See it here. Nikon had nothing to do with this as far as I know. It was the Texans who played Frankenstein with a stock F4 body.

Kodak sold the $13,000 1.3 MP DCS-100, hacked into an F3HP body.

1990

Kodak shows a hacked Nikon body with a Kodak sensor at Photokina called the DCS. It was 1 MP and cost $25,000. It shipped in 1991.

Kodak kept trying through about 2003, and gave up after the 14n.

These and later model Kodaks were popular for some news events, but most newspapers that had them threw them away when the D1 came out in 1999.

1973

Kodak created the first digital camera in Rochester, New York, USA. It was big and scary and certainly didn't run on batteries. Nikon had nothing to do with this, although Kodak probably used a Nikkor lens.

More Information: This site also has an excellent history of digital Nikons.

BASIC PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

BASIC PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION

Photographic composition is the pleasing arrangement of subject matter elements within thepicture area. Creative photography depends foremost on the photographer's ability to see as the camera sees because a photograph does not reproduce a scene quite the way we see it. The camera sees and records only a small isolated part of the larger scene, reduces it to only two dimensions, frames it, and freezes it. It does not discriminate as we do. When we look at a scene we selectively see only the important elements and more or less ignore the rest. A camera, on the other hand, sees all the details within the field of view. This is the reason some of our pictures are often disappointing. Backgrounds may be cluttered with objects we do not remember, our subjects are smaller in the frame or less striking than we recall, or the entire scene may lack significance and life.
Good pictures are seldom created by chance. To make the most of any subject, you must understand the basic principles of composition. The way you arrange the elements of a scene within a picture, catch the viewer’s attention, please the eye, or make a clear statement are all qualities of good composition. By developing photographic composition skills, you can produce photographs that suggest movement, life, depth, shape, and form, recreating the impact of the original scene.
How are photographic composition skills developed? You look, you study, you practice. Every time you take a picture, look all around within the viewfinder. Consider the way each element will be recorded and how it relates to the overall composition. You must become thoroughly familiar with the camera and learn how the operation of each control alters the image. Experiment with the camera and look at the results carefully to see if they meet your expectations. With experience and knowledge of your equipment, you begin to "think through your camera" so you are free to concentrate on composition. Devote serious study to the principles of good composition. Study books and magazine articles on composition. You should analyze various media: motion pictures, TV, magazines, books and newspapers, and evaluate what you see. What is good about this picture or that TV image? What is bad about it? What principles of good composition could you apply in a different way to make the picture better.
Good or correct composition is impossible to define precisely. There are no hard-and-fast rules to follow that ensure good composition in every photograph. There are only the principles and elements that provide a means of achieving pleasing composition when applied properly. Some of these principles and elements are as follows:

Center of interest Subject placement Simplicity Viewpoint and camera angle Balance Shapes and lines Pattern Volume

Lighting Texture Tone Contrast Framing Foreground Background Perspective

As you study these principles of composition, you should soon come to a realization that some are very similar and overlap one another a great deal.
Because all or most of these principles must be considered and applied each time you take a picture, it may all seem quite confusing at first. With experience you can develop a sense of composition, and your consideration and application of the principles will become almost second nature. This is not to suggest that you can allow yourself to become complacent or careless in the application of the principles of composition. Doing so will be immediately obvious because the results you produce will be snapshots, not professional photographs.
The principles of composition that follow apply equally to both still and motion media photography.

CENTER OF INTEREST

Each picture should have only one principal idea, topic, or center of interest to which the viewer's eyes are attracted. Subordinate elements within the picture must support and focus attention on the principal feature so it alone is emphasized.
A picture without a dominant center of interest or one with more than one dominant center of interest is puzzling to a viewer. Subsequently, the viewer becomes confused and wonders what the picture is all about. When the picture has one, and only one, dominant "point of interest," the viewer quickly understands the picture.

NOTE:

"Point of interest," as used here, has the same meaning as center of interest; however, using the term point of interestprevents giving the impression that the center of interest should be located in the center of the picture.

The specific topic, idea, or object to be portrayed must be set in your mind as you prepare to take a picture. When there is nothing in the picture to attract attention to a particular area or object, the eyes wander throughout the scene. The center of interest may be a single object or numerous ones arranged so attention is directed to one definite area
When the center of interest is a single object that fills most of the picture area or one that stands out boldly, such as a white sail against a background of dark water, attention is attracted immediately to it. As may be expected, not all subjects are as simple to arrange or as bold and impressive.
A photographer usually has at his or her disposal many factors or elements that can be used and arranged within the picture area to draw or direct attention to the primary idea of the picture. Some of these elements are lines, shapes, human figures, tone, and texture.
Human figures attract attention more strongly than almost any other subject matter and unless they are the main object of the photograph should probably be kept out of the picture; for instance, a photograph showing a person standing at some distance in front of a building may leave the observer wondering whether the person or the building is the primary subject. When people are included in a scene for comparative size of objects or just for atmosphere, keep them from looking directly at the camera. When people look at the camera and therefore at the viewer of the picture, the viewer tends to return their gaze by looking directly back into their eyes. When they are not the intended point of interest, we miss the statement and purpose of the picture. When people are subordinate elements within the picture and they are looking in a direction other than at the camera, the viewer’s attention is directed from the people to what they are looking at, which should be the center of interest; for example, when people are grouped around a piece of machinery that is the center of interest of the picture, have them look at the machine, rather than the camera.

SUBJECT PLACEMENT Sometimes good composition is obtained by placing the center of interest in the geometrical center of the picture; it is generally not a good idea to place it there. Too frequently it divides the picture into equal halves and makes the picture uninteresting and difficult to balance. By dividing the picture area into thirds, both vertically and horizontally, and locating the center of interest at one of the intersections of the imaginary lines, you can usually create a feeling of balance to the composition (fig. 5-5).

In photographic composition there are two general guides for determining the best location for the center of interest. The first is the principle of thirds. The other is dynamic symmetry. In the principle of thirds, the intersection of lines that divide the picture area into thirds are marked by O’s. These intersections are good locations for the center of interest in most photographs. Notice we said THE center of interest. Remember, have only one center of interest to a picture-keep it simple. The principle of dynamic symmetry is a similar idea. A good location for the center of interest is found by drawing or imagining a diagonal line from one corner to an opposite corner. Then, draw a second line perpendicular to the first from a third corner (fig. 5-6). The intersections of the lines are the location for the center of interest.

SIMPLICITY

Simplicity is the key to most good pictures. The simpler and more direct a picture is, the clearer and stronger is the resulting statement. There are several things to be considered when we discuss simplicity. First, select a subject that lends itself to a simple arrangement; for example, instead of photographing an entire area that would confuse the viewer, frame in on some important element within the area. Second, select different viewpoints or camera angles. Move around the scene or object being photographed. View the scene through the camera viewfinder. Look at the foreground and background. Try high and low angles as well as normal eye-level viewpoints. Evaluate each view and angle. Only after considering all possibilities should you take the picture. See beyond and in front of your subject. Be sure there is nothing in the background to distract the viewer's attention from the main point of the picture. Likewise, check to see there is nothing objectional in the foreground to block the entrance of the human eye into the picture.
A last point of simplicity-tell only one story. Ensure there is only enough material in the picture to convey one single idea. Although each picture is composed of numerous small parts and contributing elements, none should attract more of the viewer's attention than the primary object of the picture. The primary object is the reason the picture is being made in the first place; therefore, all other elements should merely support and emphasize the main object. Do not allow the scene to be cluttered with confusing elements and lines that detract from the primary point of the picture. Select a viewpoint that eliminates distractions so the principal subject is readily recognized. When numerous lines or shapes are competing for interest with the subject, it is difficult to recognize the primary object or determine why the picture was made.

VIEWPOINT AND CAMERA ANGLE

The proper viewpoint or camera angle is an important factor in good composition. Repositioning your subject within the viewfinder frame and changing the camera viewpoint or camera angle are two simple ways of controlling composition.
Photographing from a different viewpoint or camera angle can often add drama and excitement or even bring out an unusual aspect of a subject. Most of the subjects you photograph are three-dimensional and should be photographed from an angle (to the right or left of and/or from higher or lower than the subject) that allows the viewer to see more than one side of the subject. The photographer should study the subject from different sides and angles. Walk around the subject and look at it from all viewpoints. See it from elevated and low positions as well as from eye level to find the best composition. This greatly assists in composing the subject for the best balance and helps to select a background that compliments, not distracts from the subject.
The terms viewpoint and camera angle are often used in conjunction with one another and sometimes used interchangeably. They can also have different meanings depending on how they are applied. Viewpoint" is the camera position in relationship to the subject. "Camera angle" is the angle in which the camera lens is tilted; for example, a picture of sailors marching, made from ground level with the camera held horizontal with reference to the ground, may be referred to as a "low viewpoint" (or camera position); however, when this picture is made, again from ground level, but with the camera pointed up, it may be referred to as a "low camera angle." Likewise, a picture made from an elevated or high position, with the camera again held horizontal with reference to the ground, or even pointed straight down, can be referred to as a "high viewpoint"; however, if the camera is not held horizontal to the ground or pointed straight down, but pointed at some angle between horizontal and vertical, the camera position could be referred to as a "high camera angle."

Eye-Level Shots

With the camera held horizontal, eye-level shots are usualIy made at a height of about 5 1/2 feet, the height from which the average adult sees, and with the camera horizontal. With the camera held at eye level but pointed up or down, the camera position changes and you have either a low or high camera angle, respectively.

Low Viewpoint and Low Camera Angle Low viewpoints and low camera angles can add emphasis and interest to many ordinary photographs. A low viewpoint can be used to distort scale or add strength to a picture or to emphasize certain elements within the picture. A low camera angle is achieved when the camera angle is located below the point of primary interest and pointed upward. Low angles tend to lend strength and dominance to a subject and dramatize the subject. Low angle shots are used when dramatic impact is desired. This type of shot is very useful for separating the subject from the background, for eliminating unwanted foreground and background, and for creating the illusion of greater size and speed (fig. 5-7).

High Viewpoint and High Camera Angle High viewpoints and high camera angles help orient the viewer, because they show relationships among all elements within the picture area and produce a psychological effect by minimizing the apparent strength or size of the subject (fig. 5-8).

BALANCE

Balance in photographic composition is a matter of making pictures look harmonious. Each element in a picture has a certain amount of value in respect to all the other elements. Every tone, mass, shape, tree, rock figure, building, line, or shadow contributes a certain amount of weight that must be arranged correctly in the composition to give the impression of balance. The subject placement within the picture area is the factor that must be carefully considered.
Composition is kept in balance by two different methods: symmetrical, or formal, balance and asymmetrical, or informal, balance.

Symmetrical, or Formal, Balance Symmetrical, or formal, balance in a photograph is achieved when elements on both sides of the picture are of equal weight (fig. 5-9A). The idea of formal balance can be related to a seesaw, When there are two equally weighted objects on the seesaw and they are equidistant from the pivot point, or fulcrum, the board will be in balance. Pictures with formal balance may look static and unexciting; however, they do present an air of dignity. Formal balance does not always mean a picture has to the seesaw in perspective. The forces or weights are be symmetrical. Symmetrical pictures, in which both presumed to be approximately equal; but, the imaginary sides are exactly the same, are produced only when you pivot point is set deep into the picture space. With this want a special effect; therefore, they are not often variation to symmetrical balance, a more interesting produced. A variation of symmetrical balance deals with photograph is usually created (fig. 5-9B).

Asymmetrical, or Informal, Balance

Asymmetrical, or informal, balance is usually much more interesting than symmetrical balance. In asymmetrical balance the imaginary central pivot point is still presumed to be present; however, instead of mirror images on each side of the picture area, the subject elements are notably different in size, shape, weight, tone, and placement. Balance is established by equalizing the element forces in spite of their differences.
Asymmetrical balance is introduced when the presumed weight of two or more lighter objects is equalized by a single heavier object placed on the other side of the imaginary pivot point (fig. 5-10). Asymmetrical balance is more difficult to achieve than symmetrical balance, because of the problem of establishing relative weight values for dissimilar elements within the picture area as well as presenting some form of stability.

 

Aspects of Balance

There are many other factors to consider in order to make pictures appear balanced. Some of these are as follows:

• An object far from the center of the picture seems to have more weight than one near the center.
• Objects in the upperpart of a picture seem heavier than objects of the same size in the lower part of a picture.
• Isolation seems to increase the weight of an object.
• Intensely interesting objects seem to have more compositional weight.
• Regular shapes seem to have more weight than irregular shapes.
• Elements on the right side of an asymmetrical picture appear to have more weight than elements of the same size on the left side of the picture.
• The directions in which figures, lines, and shapes appear to be moving within the picture area are important to balance; for example, a person may be walking in a direction, or his eyes may be looking in a direction, or the shape of some element creates a feeling of movement. When the feeling of direction is present within a scene, it tends to upset the balance if judged on the size of the subject alone.

Understanding the factors required to create pictorial balance is essential for you to produce good pictures. To gain this understanding, you can continually test your feelings for balance as you look through your camera viewfinder. Once you gain an understanding of the principles of pictorial balance, achieving balance in your photographs becomes an easy process.

Camera lens buying guide

What lens should I buy for my digital camera?

Once you've bought a new interchangeable lens camera - either a digital SLR or one of the new breed of interchangeable lens compacts typified by Micro Four Thirds - you'll inevitably start thinking of adding an extra lens or two to your arsenal. This is the first step to realizing the flexibility of a system camera, but with the bewildering variety of options available on the market, you could be forgiven for wondering just why you left behind the relative simplicity of a compact camera.

In this guide we'll lead you step-by-step through the process of understanding the different kinds of lenses, and choosing the right one for your needs.


How are lenses named?

Looking at the lens pages on manufacturers' websites can be a little intimidating for a new user. Lens names often include long lists of letters and numbers, which certainly sound impressive but can also be thoroughly confusing to the newcomer. Luckily you can safely ignore most of them to start off with, and concentrate mainly on just a few things:

Focal length - defines the lens's angle of view
Aperture - describes how much light the lens gathers
Image Stabilization - some lenses include optical stabilization units to counteract the blurring effects of hand shake
Format - describes the sensor size the lens is designed to work with.
Lens mount - determines whether the lens will physically fit your camera
We'll look into each of these in more detail below.

Focal Length

The first number used to describe a lens is its focal length; in combination with the camera's sensor size, this defines the angle of view covered by the lens, with smaller numbers indicating a wider angle. Zoom lenses are named using two numbers which indicate the extremes of the range, for example 18-55mm for a typical kit zoom lens. Fixed focal length lenses which don't zoom (also widely known as 'primes') just have a single number (e.g. 50mm).

Here, we can see this lens' key specifications expressed in terms of its focal length span ('zoom range) which is 18-35mm, and its minimum aperture range, which is F3.5 at 18mm, and F4.5 at 35mm. Other information here is specific to the manufacturer. 'AF-S', describes the type of autofocus motor, 'ED' means Nikon has used Extra Low Dispersion glass in the lens design, and 'G' denotes automatic aperture selection (rather than mechanical in earlier lenses).

The image below shows how the field of view varies with focal length on a camera with the most common sensor size, APS-C (as used by Canon, Nikon, Pentax and Sony). The conversion table shows how these relate to two other standard sensor sizes, namely 'full-frame' which is the same size as a 35mm film negative, and Four Thirds which is used by Olympus and Panasonic (see our DSLR Buying Guide for more information about sensor sizes).

For the sake of convenient comparison, lenses are often referred to by their '35mm equivalent' focal length, for example a 18-55mm kit lens may be described as a 28-90mm equivalent. It's important to understand that this means simply that an 18-55mm lens on APS-C covers the same angle of view as a 28-90mm does on a 35mm camera, not that the focal length of a lens changes on different formats.

Lens type	35mm 'full-frame'	APS-C / DX	Four Thirds
Ultra wide angle	24mm and wider	16mm and wider	12mm and wider
Wide angle	28mm	18mm	14mm
Standard (Normal)	50mm	30mm	25mm
Telephoto	80mm and longer	55mm and longer	42mm and longer

 Aperture

The aperture of a lens is the second major parameter used in its specification, and describes how much light it is capable of gathering (see our glossary for more detail). Apertures can be expressed in several different ways, with F4, f/4, 1:4 all meaning the same thing. A smaller number means the lens has a larger maximum aperture and therefore gathers more light; an F2.8 lens collects twice as much light as an F4, for example.

A lens with a larger maximum aperture allows you to shoot in lower light, and (for example) take pictures indoors without using flash. Larger apertures also give decreased depth of field (i.e. how much of the picture in front of and behind the focus point appears sharp), which is an important aspect of creative photography.

A large aperture such as F2.8 gives a shallow depth of field, allowing the isolation of one element in a picture	Large aperture lenses also allow you to shoot indoors without having to resort to flash

Image Stabilization

Image stabilization has become widespread across camera systems over the past few years, but the various manufacturers implement it in different ways. Pentax and Olympus incorporate it into the camera body, whereas Canon, Fujifilm, Nikon, Panasonic and Samsung use systems built into the lens. Sony (slightly confusingly) uses in-body 'Super Steady Shot' for its Alpha SLT cameras, but in-lens 'Optical Steady Shot' for its Nex system cameras. Image stabilization is especially useful with telephoto lenses, so is worth bearing in mind when comparing the available options.

Image stabilization systems reduce the blur caused by camera shake, allowing sharp pictures to be taken even in low light or at long focal lengths. If you own a camera that doesn't have stabilization built into the body, you'll probably want to consider buying stabilized lenses, especially telephotos.

The various manufacturers all call lens-based optical image stabilization by different names, with corresponding initials in the lens names, so here's what you need to look out for when buying:

• Canon - Image Stabilization (IS)
• Fujifilm, Panasonic and Samsung - Optical Image Stabilization (OIS)
• Nikon - Vibration Reduction (VR)
• Sony (NEX system) - Optical Steady Shot (OSS)
• Sigma - Optical Stabilization (OS)
• Tamron - Vibration Control (VC)

Format Coverage

Most affordable SLRs and mirrorless cameras use APS-C sensors, which are approximately 24mm x 16mm in size, or less than half the size of the old 35mm film negative (Nikon calls these cameras 'DX format'). However high end Canon, Nikon and Sony cameras sport so-called 'full frame' sensors, which means purely that they are about the same size as a 35mm negative, i.e. 24mm x 36mm (Canon's older high speed professional cameras used an intermediate sensor size, called APS-H, which provided a 1.3X crop). Panasonic and Olympus, meanwhile, use the slightly smaller Four Thirds sensor format in their interchangeable lens cameras.

All of the major manufacturers (aside of course from Olympus and Panasonic) now make a range of lenses specifically optimized for APS-C cameras, and these generally provide the best choice for general-purpose and wide angle zooms in particular. Lenses designed for full frame will also work just fine on APS-C cameras. However APS-C lenses won't work properly on full-frame cameras, and in the case of Canon, it's physically impossible to attach an APS-C-optimised EF-S lens to a full-frame camera. This is something worth bearing in mind if you are thinking of upgrading to a full frame system in the near future.

The manufacturers label their APS-C format SLR lenses as follows:

• Canon - EF-S
• Nikon - DX
• Pentax - DA
• Sony - DT
• Sigma - DC
• Tamron - Di II
• Tokina - DX

Sigma and Tamron also have specific designations for their lenses for mirrorless cameras - 'DN' and 'Di III' respectively. At the time of writing, Tokina doesn't make any lenses of this type.

Lens Mounts

Each camera maker uses its own proprietary lens mount, meaning that lenses can't be swapped across brands; a Canon lens won't fit on a Nikon body, for example, and you'll cause damage to lens and camera if you try. There are a couple of exceptions - Olympus and Panasonic both use the Four Thirds mount for DSLRs, and the Micro Four Thirds mount for their mirrorless interchangeable lens compacts (ILCs). Samsung's now-obsolescent SLRs were essentially re-badged Pentax KAF-mount models, however the company is now concentrating on its NX ILC series.

A number of third party manufacturers, most notably Sigma, Tamron and Tokina, also make lenses in a number of different mounts to fit the multiple camera brands. The table below lists the currently available lens mounts.

Manufacturer	SLR	ILC	Notes
Canon	EF,EF-S	EF-M	EF-S lenses are designed for APS-C DSLRs and cannot be used on cameras with larger sensors. However all EF lenses can be used on APS-C DSLRs.All EF and EF-S lenses can also be used on the EOS M via Canon's own adapter, which maintains autofocus and image stabilization functions.
Fujifilm	F	XF	Fujifilm's long-discontinued line of SLRs used the Nikon F mount. Its X-system mirrorless cameras use the entirely different XF mount.
Nikon	F	1	Nikon's entry-level DSLRs will not autofocus with many older lenses which don't have a built-in AF motor.Nikon makes an adapter to fit F-mount lenses to its 1 System mirrorless cameras, but again only lenses with built-in motors will autofocus.
Olympus / Panasonic	Four Thirds	Micro Four Thirds	Four Thirds SLR lenses can be fitted to Micro Four Thirds cameras via an adapter, but autofocus may not function well, if at all.
Pentax	KAF	Q	Some of Pentax's latest lenses with built-in autofocus motors will not autofocus on older DSLR bodies that lack the contacts to power the AF motor.
Samsung	KAF	NX	Pentax K-mount DSLR lenses can be used on NX cameras via an adapter.
Sigma	SA	-	Only Sigma makes lenses to fit its SA-series cameras
Sony	Alpha (A)	E	Alpha mount lenses can be used on NEX E-mount cameras via an adapter. Autofocus is dependent upon the lens type and the adapter used; with the original LA-EA1 adapter only lenses with built-in focus motors (SAM and SSD) will work, whereas all lenses will autofocus on the LA-EA2.

The new generation of interchangeable lens compacts all offer a degree of compatibility with the respective manufacturer's SLR mount via lens adapters, but in general performance is compromised to some extent - in particular autofocus is often slow and hesitant.

Zoom vs. Prime

Zoom lenses have become almost ubiquitous over the past few years, and at first sight buying a lens which is restricted to a single angle of view might seem pointless. But prime lenses still have some very real advantages; compared to zooms they tend to be smaller and lighter, have faster maximum apertures, and give sharper images. These factors make them extremely useful for specific purposes, for example low light shooting where a large maximum aperture is advantageous.

Fixed focal length 'prime' lenses are often much smaller and lighter than zooms covering the same angle of view. This is Pentax's 15mm F4 lens alongside a typical wideangle zoom, the Tokina 12-24mm F4 - the size advantage is obvious.

Some popular lens types

Standard Zoom

A standard zoom is a general-purpose lens that covers a range of focal lengths from wideangle to moderate telephoto. The most obvious example is the kit lens that comes with the camera (generally an 18-55mm F3.5-5.6 for APS-C), but this can be upgraded to something with slightly more range and better optical quality, or with a fast F2.8 maximum aperture.

Most manufacturers offer general-purpose upgrades to their kit lenses with expanded zoom ranges suitable for a wide range of subjects, such as this Sony 16-105mm. Typical lenses: 16-85mm F3.5-5.6, 17-55mm F2.8

Telephoto Zoom

Often the second lens that photographers buy, the telephoto zoom effectively allows you to get closer to your subject, and is therefore useful for photographing such things as sports, wildlife, or children running around playing.

Telephoto zooms such as this Nikon 55-200mm allow you to zoom in on your subject. Typical lenses: 55-200mm F4.5-5.6, 75-300mm F4-5.6.

Superzoom

Superzooms are all-in-one lenses which cover a full range of focal lengths from a moderate wideangle to long telephoto. They combine in one package the range of the kit zoom that came with the camera, plus that of a telephoto zoom, and therefore make perfect general purpose travel lenses. The technical image quality is often not quite as good as two separate lenses, but for many users this is more than made up for by the convenience.

Superzoom lenses such as the Tamron 18-270mm F3.5-6.3 encompass a wide range focal lengths from wideangle to telephoto. Typical lenses: 18-200mm F3.5-5.6, 18-250mm F3.5-6.3

Wideangle Zoom

The wideangle zoom extends the angle of view out beyond that captured with the kit zoom, allowing you to capture broad sweeping vistas. It's therefore a popular choice for landscapes, architecture, and interior shots.

Wide zooms such as the Sigma 10-20mm F4-5.6 let you fit more in the frame. Typical lenses: 10-24mm F3.5-5.6, 12-24mm F4

Macro Lens

'Macro' is used to describe a lens with extreme close-focusing ability, which allows you to take photographs of small objects such as insects or flowers. Some zoom lenses use 'macro' in their name to indicate closer-than-usual focusing ability, but true macro lenses tend to have fixed focal lengths. In general, the longer the focal length, the further away you can be from your subject. (Nikon calls these lenses 'Micro' instead.)

Macro lenses like the Olympus 50mm F2 allow you to shoot closeups in fine detail. Typical lenses: 60mm F2.8 Macro, 100mm F2.8 Macro

Fast Prime Lens

Fast prime lenses come in all focal lengths, from wide angle to ultra-telephoto, but what they share in common is the ability to capture a lot of light in a relatively small, discreet package with high optical quality. Once an endangered species, this class of lens has seen a resurgence in recent years, and undoubtedly the most popular is the 50mm F1.8, or the more expensive 50mm F1.4. On a camera with an APS-C sensor this makes for a short telephoto perspective, ideal for snapping pictures of friends and family using natural light.

Fast prime lenses such as this Canon 50mm F1.8 allow you to shoot indoors in natural light without having to use flash. Typical lenses: 50mm F1.8, 85mm F1.8

Pancake Lenses

The word 'pancake' is used to describe slimline lenses that are designed to make a camera as compact as possible. These have enjoyed a resurgence recently as a natural companion for Interchangeable Lens Compact cameras, but are also available for SLRs (most notably from Pentax and more recently Canon).

Three slimline 'pancake' lenses, from Olympus, Samsung and Pentax.

Other lens features

There are a few other aspects of build and operation which you may wish to consider when buying a lens.

Autofocus

The autofocus system used by a lens can have a large impact on its focusing performance, particularly in terms of noise and speed. The focus motor can be positioned either in the camera body or in the lens, and in-lens focus motors come in a variety of types with different characteristics. Here's an overview of the most important types:

• Screw drive lenses don't have an internal motor, and instead are driven from the camera body via a mechanical coupling, which tends to be fast but comparatively noisy. Many older Nikon, Pentax and Sony lenses use this approach, although all three companies are now moving towards in-lens motors. Entry-level Nikon bodies don't have built-in motors, and so can't autofocus with this type of lens.
• Micromotor drives use conventional DC motors to drive the focus group via a gear train. These tend to be found in cheaper lenses from the camera manufacturers and in many lenses from third party manufacturers (particularly Tamron and Tokina). AF performance is highly variable - at worst slow and noisy, at best reasonably fast and quiet.
• Linear Stepper motors have become common in lenses designed for mirrorless cameras, as they can offer fast and silent autofocus during movie recording. Canon has also made a couple of SLR lenses using this technology.
• Ultrasonic-type motors are very popular in SLR lenses, with the main attraction of being near-silent in operation. They come in two main flavors; the cheaper micro-type has similar characteristics to micromotors, while the more expensive ring-type has a number of advantages. In general, they are fast, silent, and enable full-time manual override of autofocus (see also below). Unfortunately not all of the manufacturers like to make the distinction between the two types clear in their marketing materials. 

As usual, each company has a different name for its ultrasonic motors, and uses the corresponding initials in the lens name.

• Canon - Ultrasonic Motor (USM)
• Nikon - Silent Wave Motor (AF-S)
• Olympus - Supersonic Wave Drive (SWD)
• Pentax - Supersonic Drive Motor (SDM)
• Sigma - Hypersonic Motor (HSM)
• Sony - Supersonic Wave Motor (SSM)
• Tamron - Ultrasonic Silent Drive (USD) and Piezo Drive (PZD) - ring-tye and micro-type respectively
• Tokina - Silent Drive Module (SD-M)

Electronic manual focus ('focus by wire')

Most SLR lenses have manual focus rings that move the focus group using a direct mechanical coupling. In contrast most mirrorless cameras employ a 'focus by wire' system, which uses the built-in motor for manual focusing. At its best this offers highly responsive, accurate manual focusing while keeping the lens size to a minimum.  

Manual Focus Override

On most cameras and lenses there is a switch to change between autofocus and manual focus, and turning the focus ring when in auto mode can potentially damage the motor or gearing. Some lenses, however, employ a clutch mechanism that allows the photographer to tweak focus manually at any time without risking damage. In general this is limited to the more expensive ultrasonic-type lenses, but Pentax deserves credit here, as almost all of its current range has this feature (which the company calls 'Quick Shift' manual focus).

Some Olympus lenses, like the 17mm F1.8 shown here, offer manual focus using a 'snap ring' manual focus system. Pulling the focus ring back (towards the camera) reveals a distance scale, engages manual focus mode and gives an impressively mechanical-feeling manual focus experience.

Most mirrorless camera systems also allow manual focus override, but rather than using a switch on the lens barrel, this is generally enabled by a menu setting on the camera.  

Manual Focus Lenses

A few companies still make high quality manual focus-only lenses, even in this era of autofocus. These tend to be fixed focal-length lenses with metal barrels and premium optics. The principal names to look out for here are Carl Zeiss and Voigtlander. Certain specialist optics from the major manufacturers are also manual focus only, including Canon and Nikon's tilt and shift lenses.

Build Quality and Weathersealing

As a general rule, the more expensive a lens is, the better built it is likely to be. The kit lenses that come with cameras tend to rather lightweight and plastic in construction; spend a bit more and you can get something more durable. Some lenses incorporate environmental sealed against dust and water; in general this tends to be towards the top end of the price spectrum, but Pentax and Olympus in particular offer a decent range of mid-priced sealed lenses (Pentax even makes weather resistant 'WR' versions of its kit lenses to go with its top-end K5 series DSLRs).

Special mention must also be made of Pentax's 'Limited' range of primes, which hark back to old fashioned manual focus lenses, with finely engineered and beautifully finished aluminium barrel construction.

System addict...

One last word. When choosing a camera system to invest in, it's important to appreciate that the lens has just as great an impact on the image quality as the camera. Lenses tend to last longer than cameras too, becoming obsolete less quickly than bodies, so it can be worth spending a little bit extra to get the quality or flexibility you really want. Most of the major players have broadly similar lens options (and there are plenty of third-party alternatives for those that don't), but inevitably each has its relative strengths and weaknesses.

If you have a specific application that needs specialized lenses (or other accessories) it's worth doing some research before committing to one system or another; dpreview's lens reviews and user forums are an excellent place to start. Oh, and once bitten by the lens buying bug, many enthusiasts find it hard to stop; you have been warned...